plywood standard size in cm


General Dimensions of Plywood Plywood is generally sold in 4 x 8 panels, but it can also be 4 x 10, 4 x 12 or 2 x 4 panels. For example, if the area covered with plywood is 800 square feet. The exact thickness of the plate is an important factor in the weight. It is known for its water resistance and pleasing appearance, making it a popular choice for cabinets. Three-dimensional tolerances. While there are no fixed standard sizes and a particular floor has its own unique characteristics, there are general dimensions depending on the type and construction of the floor. The most popular dimension for plywood in the United States is 4 feet by 8 feet, though 5 feet by 5 feet is also common. Everything You Need to Know about VA Appraisals, Where to Buy a Craftsman Garage Door Opener Remote. carrom includes package standard pawns striker eligible usa shipping games islamicbookstore visit toys This sanding typically removes 1/32 inch from the face of the plywood. PRICE PER PANEL. The width of the wall cabinet can be adapted to single or double doors. Dont forget, a 4' x 8' sheet of 3/4" plywood weighs 60 pounds! Like softwood plywood, hardwood is also used in construction projects though in conditions that require greater structural strength and resistance to damage. This can include ships, but it is also often used for outdoor cabinetry, occasionally decks, and other outdoor features in coastal regions. In the preparation of plywood, around 1/32 inch of its thickness may be lost to sanding. Anytime that you have a raised foundation or you have a second or third floor, Smith says. A 1/2 sheet of plywood refers to the thickness of the sheet. Add 10 percent to account for wastage. The grain of each layer is rotated 90 degrees to improve strength, reduce shrinkage, and prevent the wood from splitting. The cheapest type of plywood is D-grade plywood. Most flexible copper water pipes for refrigerators have an outer diameter of 1/4 inch. Whether you are buying wood for cabinets or a roof, youll need to understand the various plywood sheet sizes available to you. It is available in standard 4" x 8" sheets in 1/8, 1/4, 5/16 and 3/4" thicknesses. Remember, plywood is made from many layers of thin wooden sheets. The hardest part is placing the first sheet. For stronger Some services are subject to state and local licensing and may not be available at all locations. There also may be 4 x 12-ft. sheets available by special order (these larger sheets will generally be in-stock at major lumberyards). You wouldnt A piece of 23/32" 4x8" plywood weighs about 67 pounds, while a similar size piece of OSB weighs about 78 pounds. Click here for a full answer. Plywood manufacturers use lauan, also called Philippine mahogany, to make practical-grade plywood for furniture and interiors. We are also a member of several other affiliate networks. 1/8" 4 ft. by 8 ft. 270. Mastering plywood grades is as easy as A, B, C and D and X too. The question then is, what is the weight of the plywood per square foot? It doesnt do us any good to build a bunch of walls with a framed skeleton and not have any way of keeping out the elements. Smaller details can be created with 11 / 2 = 10. Refrigerators come in a variety of styles, capacities, and sizes. Disclaimer:REthority is supported by ads and participation in affiliate programs. A typical 4-by-8-foot sheet of plywood covers 32 square feet. To make cabinets, you will need to use 1-inch interior plywood made from 4-by-8-foot sheets. So you don't have to worry about anything! And yes, I've done it twice and will do it again. In the United States, architectural floor plans are usually 1/8 = 10 or 1/4 = 10. These project panels are usually sawn to size from large panels by the store to meet local demand. For example, a 4 x 8 x 1/2" sheet of plywood is exactly 4 x 8 feet and is exactly 1/2" thick. A 48 sheet of plywood will fit a Chevrolet Suburban. If your roof area is 1600 square feet, 1600 divided by 32 means you will need about 50 panels to cover your roof. The plywood core is what makes endstream endobj 31 0 obj <>stream Trailer Capacity - Carrying Heavy Loads You also need to be able to haul heavy wood as plywood can support the weight. He learned to build and weld while working on the farm with his grandad, and after earning a degree in Welding and Materials Engineering, he spent the next 10 years working in the heavy construction building everything from robots to ships to offshore oil rigs before transitioning to residential construction. 53 0 obj <>stream

exposed, look for Baltic B-birch plywood or hardwood veneer plywood. The next common size down is 5' x 5' This is common with sanded sheets of plywood where up to 4' x 8' size correlates to the spacing on floor joists, roof trusses or is also used in construction projects though in conditions that require greater structural strength and resistance to damage. For example, a stud-grade pine board is initially milled to a precise 2 x 4-inch dimension, but the subsequent drying and planing process shrinks the board to about 1 1/2 x 3 1/2 inches in size. Standard refrigerator sizes range from about 24 to 40 inches wide, 62 to 72 inches high, and 29 to 36 inches deep. So look for trailers with a solid axle. use the information below to make sure its the right size and thickness. for furniture, cabinets or woodworking. There are many different types of plywood, though two principal ones are especially common in residential construction projects: Typically made of spruce, pine, or fir (often collectively referred to as SPF) or cedar, softwood plywood can be used for walls, floors, and roofing. exterior to give it the appearance of one sheet of solid wood: Decorative plywood (overlaid plywood) uses different types of wood species [a)B*UH RD3|xN8,,&w>=adBnpK"vffyt>?~b}%:-Z-4=\USb~?[M\HiA$$HJ&TzH7P(1 This is how we keep the lights on (i.e. Most flexible plastic cooling water pipes have an outer diameter of 1/4" or 5/16". You also need to be able to transport heavy wood, as plywood can support the weight. ,b282Hm^ 6M_~e;,V; XdqT9H;Q$!Rmsnv{8 Y)$0c+X1!oJaGMToUOF9Nw @ In addition to these standard sizes, home improvement stores like Home Depot carry pre-cut panels in various other sizes including 2 by 2, 2 by 4, and 4 by 4 feet. Architectural Dimensions (AD) is a full-service architecture and design firm dedicated to complex projects across a variety of industries, including retail, hospitality, restaurants, shopping malls, offices, industrial and historic renovations. y#i%^`[&9kj%y-uXhd$tTvX,J\(0i8F2.H$Q2*&HHbohQd0|v0KF;bJE*HuC(/]=_Jcb*.08\J2Wua. A plywood sheet has two face veneers, so if you see a sheet graded as AB that means it is A-quality on one side and B on the other. Typically made of spruce, pine, or fir (often collectively referred to as SPF) or cedar. We Found Your Local Mr. Handyman Ann Arbor, MI. hbbd``b`: $ r$vDh fak# %J e)y 2H$>H1012q 0 fI & Plywood is indispensable in construction and woodworking, so carpenters, carpenters and renovation enthusiasts should be familiar with the standard sizes in which it is available. 3/16 includes 4 ft x 8 ft. Plain plywood. As described, the most common sheet of plywood is 4 feet by 8 feet. Hardwood plywood is also available in 2"x2", 2"x4", and 4"x4" sizes. This is because after its manufactured, plywood shrinks as it dries. Get DIY project ideas and easy-to-follow crafts to help you spruce up your space. 44 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<722EE0AF0D67E2C16956CE3F2C0A4BAB><6D9D9B2E78675D40A505D3D4C211426A>]/Index[26 28]/Info 25 0 R/Length 88/Prev 102722/Root 27 0 R/Size 54/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream guarantee you a professional result. In general, any defects have not been repaired with D grade plywood. You can purchase high-quality Columbia Forest Products plywood products through a network of select Home Depot stores and wholesalers. Big-box home improvement centers generally sell sanded pine or hardwood-faced plywood suitable for woodworking projects in standard 4 x 8-ft. sheets. After a. , its necessary to fill in the spaces between those supports with weather resistant material. Home Homeowners Decorating What Are the Standard Plywood Sheet Sizes? The year of manufacture of your Suburban determines how you install the plywood in your car and how many panels will fit in it. Hardwood plywood is also available in 2"x2", 2"x4", and 4"x4" sizes. 4P(\h@(7%go5_3JQJPE!B}>s %,'v OSB is produced in a slightly different thickness range than plywood. Plywood can get a little confusing, which is why Mr. Handyman is here to Sofas range in size from 6 to 8 feet long and 32 to 40 inches deep for a standard sofa, 4 to 6 feet long and 28 to 30 inches deep for a love chair. See pressure treated plywood in stock *How much does softwood plywood weigh? COURT OF LAW. Woods used for overlay plywood include ash, birch, mahogany, maple, and oak. Medium Density Fiber Core (MDF) Hardwood Plywood MDF is made from fine wood powder that is mixed with a binder and hot pressed into panels. Chris Baylor is a woodworking expert and writer with over a decade of hands-on commercial carpentry experience. The information included in this post is for informational purposes only and should not be taken as legal or financial advice. Plywoods thickness can range from 1/8 inch, inch, 3/8 inch etc. Be sure to have a helping hand when loading or unloading sheets by yourself. Foot. Thicker plywood sheets are usually 3/4". Just remember, this product comes in many different grades and sizes, so do your research to know which one is the best fit for your project. The increased weight of OSB makes installation difficult and increases stress in the home. Jordan Smith is the CEO and Founder of Smith House Company, a design+build firm based in Austin, Texas. Everything else slides very easily from behind. In framing lumber, the difference between the nominal size (how a board is labeled) vs. its actual size comes about because of the planing and drying process, which shrinks a board from the dimensions it had when it was originally milled. We've updated our Privacy Policy, which will go in to effect on September 1, 2022. The lowest grade can have knots and knotholes up to 2.5 inches. For roofing or flooring applications, the thickness will depend on the He has studied under master carpenters and also designs wooden tools and furniture, sharing tutorials on websites including Woodworkers Workshop and Homemade Tools. The C grade plywood may include knots up to 1.5 inches and knotholes under 1 inch. Smith House Co. strives to build more beautiful, functional and resilient spaces which are self sustaining and harmonize with their natural surroundings. Get the latest updates about new courses, special trainings, resources, and more. Some Will a sheet of plywood (4 x 8) fit in a Honda Pilot SUV? However, its always Likewise, a piece of plywood is usually 2 feet long, but some sellers offer 4 to 12 feet in length. We could put braces up that keep that sideways force from toppling the building over, but we still have to worry about stuff like air and moisture infiltration. When its time to buy a few sheets for your next project, of plywood core to your project. Not really, but yes. and that 3/4" thick sheet is really 23/32". Click here for a full answer. For your next home project, call us. All locations are individually owned and operated. Roof in most situations and is standard for most roofing applications. The plywood/drywall actually measures 48 inches. And the top layer needs to be sanded after the sheet is made. MT Copeland offers video-based online classes that give you a foundation in construction fundamentals with real-world applications. For common rafter and joist spacing (24" The length of the board is a measure of the volume of wood in the panel. If youre building anything made out of wood, youll likely need to cover it with plywood. 1 standard width and length. On average, a 4" x 8" sheet of softwood plywood weighs about 61 pounds. If you want to build real plywood doors, consider the size of the doors in the amount of plywood you buy. A carpenter can use some well-finished panels with a smooth surface to create decorative woodwork around the house. As described, the most common sheet of plywood is 4 feet by 8 feet. Z13IAe E8=HpVafIC#?30B(,f"aLHI0:nn!Eu[m0OS'` Plywood sheets are generally sold 1.20 meters wide, but sometimes 2 to 5 meters wide. While this varies by type, utility-grade sheets have a tolerance of 1/32 inches and cabinet-grade sheets have a tolerance of 1/64 inches. truss or joist spacing. Plywood is generally sold as 4' by 8' panels. You have to have some flooring material that goes on top of our joist that gives us all the structural rigidity that we need.. Well Plywood sheets are available in various sizes and widths, the actual length and thickness will depend on the manufacturer's product line and the type of plywood. ranging from 1/8" to more than 1". For construction in the US, the length and width of the plywood are measured in conventional units. Made from Pine, Cedar, Douglas Fir, Spruce, and other softwood trees, this material is used for roofing, subfloors, walls, sheathing, and other generic applications. A dozen 3/4-inch sheets of softwood plywood weigh about 850 pounds, which is the equivalent of as many sheets of paper as you can safely transport in a truck under its own weight. In a rectangular pool, the dimensions can be 16 x 30 x 9 or 16 feet wide, 9 feet long and 9 feet deep. No matter the core, these panels will always have a wood veneer on the As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. The second time it was 4 plywood panels and 2 plasterboard panels. How many inches is 32? Read on to learn about the standard plywood sheet sizes and types you can buy. So what does a 4x8 sheet of plywood weigh? and will cover 25 square feet. However, it comes in different thicknesses. This grade is largely free of knots, though some tight ones (under 1 inch) are acceptable. Mr. Handyman is a Neighborly Company. Usually the nominal thickness of the plywood is 1/2" and 3/4", but again, the actual dimensions are slightly different. To complicate matters, there are also special sizes.

From woodworking to roof joists, this material serves many purposes. As its name indicates, overlay (or decorative) plywood is intended to overlay a panel and create a smooth, paintable surface. This means that higher-grade plywood is held to a higher standard than lower-grade material. The information included in this post is for informational purposes only and should not be taken as legal or financial advice. At Neighborly, we are committed to being there for all your home service needs. are allowed for use as subfloors in accordance with building codes. Typically made of birch, mahogany, or spruce, aircraft plywood is sometimes used in the construction of aircraft though it has a range of other uses from furniture to musical instruments. On average, a 4" x 8" sheet of softwood plywood weighs about 61 pounds. 10 Colors That Go With Forest Green in 2022, The 11 Toilet Tank Parts to Know About in 2022, Standard Trash Can Sizes | Picking the Right One. If you are building in the US, the length and width of the plywood are measured in standard units. The nominal thickness of the plywood varies between 1/8" or mm. p;IEop82c>2XQ2YPY"dRFbysIAxvmA`[Kdggpp>5c|>~M(x,y+l/sO8RnZywFVF6Y*qC\OvS3!u-|:O9:6z8_~alvYx&/?QZ&_ys,I#v:*v>C?exS>odB.gf^Ak"5_zWPR..M>Yr:I\Dt) The actual size of a 4x8 sheet of plywood is 48 inches wide, 96 inches long, and (commonly) 15/32 inches thick. wall studs for easy installation. The standard slab measures 4 feet by 8 feet and comes in a variety of thicknesses, and custom sizes are also available. With hardwood boards sold in stores, the difference in nominal vs. actual dimensions is usually about 1/16 inch; it is the result of the planing process used to finish the board faces. We may earn a commission when you click our links. just fine and is what most home improvement stores sell. plywood can be used for walls, floors, and roofing. Baltic birch is a particular type of birch plywood manufactured in Europe. Standard table and bench dimensions are as follows: Rectangular table: 28" long and 25" wide. An average sheet of 48 plywood is half an inch or 16 cubic feet thick. And even plywood that's only 1/4 inch thick can weigh 22 pounds per sheet. pay for content, product research, guides, and more). What are some standard plywood sheet sizes? The tops can be sold as is, or veneered leather such as oak or maple can be glued to the top. It is what keeps a house standing and the elements outside. We are also a member of several other affiliate networks. You also have to wrap this skeleton in a skin that keeps it from blowing down to take care of shear, explains professional builder and craftsman Jordan Smith. The most common joist spacing is 24" and 5/8" plywood is recommended.

It is typically made of birch, oak, or mahogany. Wall sections and details are often 3/4 = 10. When you buy a sheet of plywood, you know exactly what size you are getting, unlike other woods, which have nominal and actual dimensions. A typical 4 ft by 8 ft 1/2" sheet of pressure plywood weighs about 60 lbs. Most furniture product description pages have the measurements below. They're inexpensive and are best suited for construction sites or projects where quality doesn't matter. Since this is often not a multi ply product but a single veneer of a tropical hardwood, it is arguably not a true plywood. What Are the Standard Plywood Sheet Sizes? The actual weight of plywood varies by product and manufacturer, making it difficult to accurately predict weight. Plywood comes in different thickness The width and length of the plywood sheets are manufactured for use in 2 nominal and actual thicknesses. It is typically made of birch, oak, or mahogany. Powered by Discourse, best viewed with JavaScript enabled. Keep in mind that the thickness labels are not often the actual thickness Therefore, a 3/8-inch thick plywood is 11/32 inches.

Many retailers now label plywood products with the actual thicknesses, as well as the nominal thicknesses. Standard nominal sizes are 1/8, 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1 1/8, and 1 1/4 inches. endstream endobj startxref This is the highest quality plywood with a smooth surface free of knots and repairs. on center) 5/8" plywood is recommended. An average pickup truck that weighs half a ton can safely carry about 1,000 pounds. The standard size for plywood is 4 feet by 8 feet. You can find the sizes by visiting their store or searching online. What Does OC (On-Center) Mean in Construction Projects? And even plywood that's only 1/4 inch thick can weigh 22 pounds per sheet. Sanded oak plywood in 2 x 2, 2 x 4, 4 x 4 or 4 x 8 foot sizes is very typical for indoor use. sheets used in heavy-duty applications can have as many as 13 ply or more. Classes include professionally produced videos taught by practicing craftspeople, and supplementary downloads like quizzes, blueprints, and other materials to help you master the skills. The most common plywood sheet measures 4 feet by 8 feet, with metric measurements of 1219 by 2438 millimeters. All numbers in the table are approximate dimensions for typical trays, trays and trays. As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. Flexible plywood is often used for cabinets and other furniture, though its construction uses can include spiral staircases and arched ceilings. A carpenter can use some well-made panels with a smooth surface to create decorative joinery around a house. How to Build Super-Strong Wooden Shelves That Look Great, Understanding Board-Foot Pricing for Hardwoods, Building a Jointer Jig for Your Table Saw, Take Your Ceramics Studio to the Next Level, Learn All About Plywood, Its Construction, and Woodworking Uses, Learn How to Cut a Dado Like a Master Woodworker, I've Been Knitting for 12 Years, and These Are the 9 Best Sustainable Yarns I've Ever Tried, Stitch a Rainbow of Knots With a Modern Embroidery Project, You Don't Need Fancy Hardwoods for Drawer Boxes. 4' x 8' plywood sheathing, which can be 1/4 to 3/4 inch thick, is widely used for a variety of outdoor applications. For joists spaced 20" or more, 1/2" or 5/8" plywood is recommended. The most common dimensions of plywood are 4" x 8" panels and 5" x 5" panels. Hardwood is used for carpentry projects like cabinetry, making furniture, and other decorative applications. This is how we keep the lights on (i.e. best to check with local building codes to be certain. hTM0 Baltic birch is a particular type of birch plywood manufactured in Europe. Don't go to the next section. mind when buying sanded plywood (Grades A and B). up to 1 inches. Plywood sheets are available in various sizes and widths, the actual length and thickness will depend on the manufacturer's product line and the type of plywood. Veneer core plywood commonly has either 5 or 7 sheets of veneer. Depending on the thickness, plywood can cost between $5 and $55 for a 4x8 sheet. of the sheet. Just as construction lumber nominal sizes differ from actual dimensions, the same is true of plywood sheet goods: Specialty woodworking shops may carry plywood in additional thicknesses, such as 1/8-inch (3/32) panels for use as a facing material. The ply in plywood refers to wood veneers, which are placed one on top of another at 90-degree angles and glued together. The alternating arrangement provides the final product with a structural strength while, unlike some other products, a plywood panel has the wood grain appearance of a standard wood board. Hardwood plywood is also available in short 2 x 2, 2 x 4 and 4 x 4 foot boards, while general purpose plywood is available in longer 4 x 10 foot boards. After spending a couple of years working with industry leading builders in Austin, Jordan and his wife Veronica struck out on their own to form Smith House Co. In most cases, a veneer core will do The Yards Board Length Calculator will help you calculate how many plank feet you will need if your plywood is to be sold in that size. Enter the length to the last full foot. (Music by Big O.). Lowe's, on the other hand, offers prices ranging from $15 to $50 for the most popular 4x8 blades. 0 The assembled and ready-made cabinets are also available in select versions in 5" and 9" widths. Plywood is usually sold in sheet form, but in rare cases it can also be sold as a base for planks. The 636 x 88-inch (1620 x 220 cm) Haskelite panel is the largest plywood panel ever made in the world. Knowing this can save you time and money. It's less expensive than other roofing materials, it's easy to install, and it holds up well when exposed to the elements for an extended period of time. If you have a decent minivan you can put a few sheets in it.

Fiberglass, on the other hand, is up to 3/4" thick and comes in widths up to 1 1/2". Some floorboards are available in any length or from 12 to 96. Although with 1/32-inch difference doesn't seem like muchand it doesn't make much difference in rough construction work where the tolerances are less demandingit can become an issue in precision woodworking. For example, lumber core plywood consists of two veneers around a solid core of a less expensive wood (commonly basswood or yellow poplar). hn7_6P;F^%FY@ The best type of plywood for roofing is exterior plywood. The largest sheet of plywood ever made was manufactured by Haskelite Manufacturing Corporation. For high-end applications or projects that will leave the laminated edges Standard refrigerator sizes range from about 24 to 40 inches wide, 62 to 72 inches high, and 29 to 36 inches deep. Some stores even sell oversized sheets up to 6 feet wide. To this day it remains a primary material in construction and home improvement projectsby one estimate, more than 680 million cubic feet of plywood are produced each year. For example, hard woods weigh more than soft woods because of their higher density. This is made from Alder, Ash, Beech, Birch, Bamboo, Cherry, Mahogany, Maple, and other hardwood trees. For instance, if a woodworker is building a bookshelf where a "3/4-inch" plywood shelf is placed into a dado slot cut with a 3/4-inch router bit, there will be a very noticeable 1/32-inch gap, and the shelf will feel a bit sloppy in the dado. i3~{`/du) 1l,bX}&>BY9DBLKEZ,_mU)-^!F&}_tZ8 d'5 NT%N?9p1?A$WM+ebN9VEJUk0{S"+=JOXq(=Vzhz+=I#(KP_N&@HTTKT)?PEhk^x$Kdi&qfAZ1*uZ3c#yA.+]`G=8{&SR2G$>Kbbyu$is8HVH Certain types of plywood will have different cores for reduced cost, strength The actual depth of the seat is reduced by the depth of the armrests and back of the sofa. With many houses, plywood forms the walls and floors. During this process, 1/32 inches is typically removed from each sheet. The reward currency is the Philippine Peso (PHP). HTM0W][r@ $n>p:%qJWUQ'vg/C4(PA ~(5(Ki% 16i: ;gqDGU%&5_h%*@;3X+!3A}V*co{'chQ[B(-!$1>Jx$Ba>oJyXI*D_+Z/CfU?:7 S,,HJ4zoh;%C\2f$q3R")^6f}*HJ7I8ejLsa6 IY An X is used to indicate exterior plywoods. A typical 4x8 1/2" OSB sheet weighs about 54 pounds. After a frame is constructed, its necessary to fill in the spaces between those supports with weather resistant material. Removing the child seats and the second row of seats is also a bit tricky. Plywood is usually found in two types: hardwood and softwood. VAT is already included in the quoted price. Most plywood products suitable for use in woodworking projects are marketed as 1/4-inch, 1/2-inch, 5/8-inch, or 3/4-inch thicknesses, but it's important to realize that these are nominal sizes, not actual dimensions. up the material between the exterior wood veneers. Hardwood Plywood comes in many lengths and widths, but the two most common sizes are 4 x 8 and 5 x 5 feet. Smooth plywood. depend on where its being used. use this plywood to cover a roof or side a shed, but its perfect The seats also vary slightly in size. What is the standard size of plywood in the Philippines? Softwood plywood: This is the most common type of plywood used in construction. Once it hits In addition to being sturdy, plywood is also heavy. help. But before you head to the store, you should know the standard plywood sheet sizes. Your plywood calculator can estimate the number of 4" x 8" sheets of paper needed for a project. However, most local retailers only offer a few standard plate sizes as options, usually 1.20 meters wide and 8 meters long or less. Even at maximum tonnage, you'll see around 420 pounds, while a typical Suburban has a maximum towing capacity of just over 6,000 pounds. Read on to learn more about what affects weight and to find weights for different types and thicknesses of plywood. This isnt a complete list and plywood may also be identified by names describing how it is manufactured instead of its intended use. =,g BT:C}(e&I]YtIvDj _M uUiePW,d,X These sheets typically have not been repaired, and the flaws are big and noticeable. the shelves, that 3/8" sheet of sanded plywood is actually 11/32", Plywood prices are based on the average price of a sheet or panel. A 48 sheet of plywood (about 1/2 inch thick) weighs about 48 pounds. %PDF-1.6 % By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. While it was invented in England, plywood was enthusiastically embraced in the United States beginning in the 19th century. With plywood products, the difference between nominal and actual thickness comes about because of the sanding process used to finish the face of the panel after the layers have been glued and dried.