Louis XVIII was restored a second time by the allies in 1815, ending more than two decades of war. Yet in 1905-1914 the French repeatedly elected left-wing, pacifist parliaments, and French diplomacy took care to settle matters peacefully. In 1813, Napoleon was forced to conscript boys under the age of 18 and less able-bodied men who had been passed up for military service in previous years. They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". But Robespierre was unmoved by Hbert and had him and all his followers beheaded. The period from 1879 to 1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals" (around Lon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists" (Rpublicains opportunistes). [43] Under heavy pressure the French withdrew securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. It favored science and rationality and considered the Church an obstruction to human progress. On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. Napoleon then turned his hand to meddling in the Western Hemisphere. However, this represented less than one percent of population, and, as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. France acquired Indochina, Madagascar, vast territories in West Africa and Central Africa, and much of Polynesia. The young general defeated the Austrian and Sardinian forces and he negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio without the input of the Directory. Otherwise the transition was largely peaceful. In 1830, France invaded Algeria, and in 1848 this north African country was fully integrated into France as a dpartement. 
[29] Thousands were imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. [7] Crouzet concludes that the: The reign of Louis XVI (17741792) had seen a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. In February 1848, the French government banned the holding of the Campagne des banquets, fundraising dinners by activists where critics of the regime would meet (as public demonstrations and strikes were forbidden). At Waterloo, Napoleon was completely defeated by the British and Prussians, and abdicated once again. The constitution of the Second Republic which was ratified in September 1848 was extremely flawed and permitted no effective resolution between the President and the Assembly in case of dispute. In 1872, "stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. On the whole, however, there was more wealth, and more political freedom for all classes. They demanded gender equality, wages' equality, right of divorce for women, right to laque instruction (non-clerical) and for professional formation for girls. This allowed France to field much larger armies than its enemies, and soon the tide of war was reversed. The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus affair, and this allowed the Radicals to eventually gain power from 1899 until the Great War. Ways to reverse the trend became a major political issue. Finally, in 1852 he had himself declared Emperor Napolon III of the Second Empire. Too much had changed for that. Napoleon was at the height of his power in 18101812, with most of the European countries either his allies, satellites, or annexed directly into France. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) had been estimated by some sources as high as twenty thousand; recent historians, using research into the number buried in the city cemeteries and exhumed from mass graves, now put the most likely number at between six and seven thousand. The two most notable writers of the 1870s-80s, Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan rejected the Positivist label, but most of their ideas were similar in content. After Thiers came the conservative Guizot. By that point, the War of the Second Coalition was in progress. With the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino France and Austria signed the Peace of Villafranca in 1859, as the emperor worried that a longer war might cause the other powers, particularly Prussia, to intervene. Linguistically, France was a patchwork. A number of artists came to disagree with the cold rationalism and logic of the Positivists, feeling that it ignored human emotions. The First Republic was proclaimed the following day. Beside this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront the counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. The allies could also put far more men in the field than he could. All the prisoners and exiles were amnestied in 1879 and 1880, and most returned to France, where some were elected to the National Assembly.[28]. As a result, those three countries sent a joint expedition to the city of Veracruz in January 1862, but the British and Spanish quickly withdrew after realizing the extent of Napoleon's plans. The government found its source of legitimacy within the Charter of 1830, written by reform-minded members of Chamber of Deputies upon a platform of religious equality, the empowerment of the citizenry through the reestablishment of the National Guard, electoral reform, the reformation of the peerage system, and the lessening of royal authority. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. This caused the people of Spain to rise up in a patriotic revolt, beginning the Peninsular War. which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the migrs. After eleven months of exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, Napoleon escaped and returned to France, where he was greeted with huge enthusiasm. After this violence, nobles started to flee the country as migrs, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. The French emperor never had the chance to implement this, however - by the end of the year, the Second Empire had ignominiously collapsed.
By 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life.
[19], The Restoration did not try to resurrect the Ancien Rgime. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on lacit which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The French troops marched into Spain, retook Madrid from the rebels, and left almost as quickly as they came. [12], In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic.[22]. Frequent parliamentary transitions took place, but the losers were not executed or exiled. The Anglo-French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa. Bell says, "Between the two governments there was a brief battle of wills, with the British insisting on immediate and unconditional French withdrawal from Fashoda. [38], Under the leadership of expansionist Jules Ferry, the Third Republic greatly expanded the French colonial empire. The inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881. The churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings. Forty-five thousand prisoners taken after the fall of the Commune. The Commune proposed the separation of Church and state, made all Church property state property, and excluded religious instruction from schools, including Catholic schools. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. Between 1795 and 1866, metropolitan France (that is, without overseas or colonial possessions) was the second most populous country of Europe, behind Russia, and the fourth most populous country in the world (behind China, India, and Russia); between 1866 and 1911, metropolitan France was the third most populous country of Europe, behind Russia and Germany. Quantitative analysis of output data shows the French per capita growth rates were slightly smaller than Britain. Napoleon III, who had expressed some rather woolly liberal ideas prior to his coronation, began to relax censorship, laws on public meetings, and the right to strike. [33][34][35] It took control of Algeria in 1830 and began in earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, concentrating chiefly in North and West Africa, as well as South-East Asia, with other conquests in Central and East Africa, as well as the South Pacific. The Prussians briefly occupied the city and then took up positions nearby. Guesde's POF united itself in 1902 with the Parti socialiste de France, and finally in 1905 all socialist tendencies, including Jaurs' Parti socialiste franais, unified into the Section franaise de l'Internationale ouvrire (SFIO), the "French section of the Second International", itself formed in 1889 after the split between anarcho-syndicalists and Marxist socialists which led to the dissolving of the First International (founded in London in 1864). Both the Legitimist and the Orlanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. Beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. With that, the extreme, radical phase of the Revolution ended. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. However, for lack of time and resources, the programs were never carried out. During the Scramble for Africa in the 1870s and 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other's spheres of influence. The overseas empire expanded, and France made gains in Indo-China, West and central Africa, and the South Seas. It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. Tensions between groups escalated, and in June 1848, a working class insurrection in Paris cost the lives of 1500 workers and eliminated once and for all the dream of a social welfare constitution.
The city finally surrendered on January 28, 1871. By 1914, most French could read French and the use of regional languages had greatly decreased; the role of the Catholic Church in public life had been radically diminished; a sense of national identity and pride was actively taught. It was made clear that his right to rule came from the people and was not divinely granted. In the final days of the battle the Communards set fire to the Tuileries Palace, the Hotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Palace of the Legion of Honor, and other prominent government buildings, and executed hostages they had taken, including Georges Darboy, the archbishop of Paris. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. The quality of his troops deteriorated sharply and war-weariness at home increased. [6] In terms of per capita growth, France was about average. Further legislation abolished monastic vows. As the city was being bombarded by Prussian siege guns in January 1871, King William of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. Guizot shut down republican clubs and disbanded republican publications. Louis XVIII fled Paris, but the one thing that would have given the emperor mass support, a return to the revolutionary extremism of 17931794, was out of the question. By 1848, Algeria had been declared an integral part of France.[24]. Like the U.S. At sea however, the French navy proved no match for the British, and was badly beaten off the coast of Ireland in June 1794. Portugal, an ally of Britain, was the only European country that openly refused to join. Afterwards, Napoleon, unable to defeat Britain militarily, tried to bring it down through economic warfare.
German troops were to remain in the country until it was paid off. The emperor was given an archduchess to marry by the Austrians, and she gave birth to his long-awaited son in 1811. French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s, using imported British engineers. Public opinion was becoming a major force as people began to tire of oppressive authoritarianism in the 1860s. The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck provoked Napoleon into declaring war on Prussia in July 1870. Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates-General which convened in Versailles in 1789. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, as well as limiting his executive authority. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards" and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. At Japan's request Paris sent military missions in 18721880, in 18841889 and in 19181919 to help modernize the Japanese army. Napoleon's reckless foreign policy was inciting criticism. Nathalie Lemel, a religious workwoman, and Elisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian aristocrat, created the Union des femmes pour la dfense de Paris et les soins aux blesss ("Women Union for the Defense of Paris and Care to the Injured") on April 11, 1871. The French were never able to suppress the forces of the ousted Mexican president Benito Jurez, and then in the spring of 1865, the American Civil War ended. [25], The Paris Commune held power for only two months. A revolt broke out on 18 March when radicalized soldiers from the Paris National Guard killed two French generals. The subsequent peace treaty was harsh. There were large-scale purges of Bonapartists from the government and military, and a brief "White Terror" in the south of France claimed 300 victims. The period and the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the Belle poque. On 19 September the Prussian army arrived at Paris and besieged the city. Thus, the Republic was born of a double defeat: before the Prussians, and of the revolutionary Commune. Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and anti-semitism in parts of the French public opinion combined to make the Dreyfus affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. Its effect on Great Britain and on British trade is uncertain, but the embargo is thought to have been more harmful on the continental European states. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire In the 1880s. However, the King of the French still believed in a version of monarchy that held the king as much more than a figurehead for an elected Parliament, and as such, he was quite active in politics. Charles X of France followed the "ultra" conservative line but was a much less effective coalition builder than Louis XVIII. Both of those conflicts saw Prussia establish itself as the dominant power in Germany. The French population in 1789 is estimated at 28 million; by 1850, it was 36 million and in 1880 it was around 39 million. However, he was pushed on his right by the Ultra-royalists, led by the comte de Villle, who condemned the Doctrinaires' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. Some French refugees moved to France. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco.
In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe (Germany, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Ashkenazi Jews) and from the Mediterranean (Italy, Spanish Sephardic Jews and North-African Mizrahi Jews). The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power.
Bismarck had supported France becoming a republic in 1871, knowing that this would isolate the defeated nation in Europe where most countries were monarchies. On July 14, 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille fortress, killing its governor and several of his guards. The late 19th century saw France embark on a massive program of overseas imperialism including French Indochina (modern day Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) and Africa (the Scramble for Africa brought France most of North-West and Central Africa) which brought it in direct competition with British interests. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum novarum was incorrectly seen to have legitimised the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hugues Felicit Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy.
During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'tat (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. Alsace and Lorraine were lost to Germany in 1871. However, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. The Crmieux Decree of 1870 gave full citizenship for the Jews in French Algeria. Symbolist writers and philosophers included Paul Bourget, Maurice Barres, and Henri Bergson plus the painters Paul Czanne and Paul Gauguin.
18151840: irregular, but sometimes fast growth; This page was last edited on 28 June 2022, at 02:48. However, the king was recognised at Varennes in the Meuse late on June 21 and he and his family were brought back to Paris under guard. Writers such as mile Zola and artists like douard Manet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir epitomized the spirit of Positivism. Napoleon himself escaped back to France, where he led the coup d'tat of November 1799, making himself First Consul (his hapless troops remained in Egypt until they surrendered to a British expedition in 1801 and were repatriated to France). The only exception to this was a war in Algeria which had been started by Charles X a few weeks before his overthrow on the pretext of suppressing pirates in the Mediterranean. Three weeks later, the French and Spanish fleets were destroyed by the British at Trafalgar. Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on August 26, 1789, the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The army had no way to return to France and faced the hostility of the Ottoman Empire. The Women Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops. Attempts by the allies on Switzerland and the Netherlands failed however, and once Napoleon returned to France, he began turning the tide on them. He was arrested on August 10, 1792. In this situation, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. The Convention approved the new Constitution of the Year III on August 17, 1795. Between May 21 and 28 the French army reconquered the city in bitter fighting, in what became known as "la semaine sanglante" or "bloody week." They quickly did so, but Maximilian tried to hold onto power. "No Monsieur", he said to another minister, "there has not been a revolution: there is simply a change at the head of state."[23]. The first half of 1793 went badly for the new French Republic, with the French armies being driven out of Germany and the Austrian Netherlands. The anti-clericalism of the Third Republic profoundly changed French religious habits: in one case study for the city of Limoges comparing the years 1899 with 1914, it was found that baptisms decreased from 98% to 60%, and civil marriages before a town official increased from 14% to 60%. The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Afterwards, tensions between France and Prussia grew, especially in 1868 when the latter tried to place a Hohenzollern prince on the Spanish throne, which was left vacant by a revolution there. A large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. He was once quoted as saying that the source of French misery was the belief that there had been a revolution. The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes.
One hundred forty-seven Communards were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in Pre Lachaise Cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. "[30] For the imprisoned there was a general amnesty in 1880, and many of the Communards returned to France, where some were elected to the Parliament. This policy included protective tariffs that defended the status quo and enriched French businessmen. Some of them founded Action Franaise in 1898, during the Dreyfus affair, which became an influent movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. France suffered massive losses during World War I roughly estimated at 1.4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties) (or nearly 10% of the active adult male population) and four times as many wounded (see World War I Aftermath).
[29] Thousands were imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. [7] Crouzet concludes that the: The reign of Louis XVI (17741792) had seen a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. In February 1848, the French government banned the holding of the Campagne des banquets, fundraising dinners by activists where critics of the regime would meet (as public demonstrations and strikes were forbidden). At Waterloo, Napoleon was completely defeated by the British and Prussians, and abdicated once again. The constitution of the Second Republic which was ratified in September 1848 was extremely flawed and permitted no effective resolution between the President and the Assembly in case of dispute. In 1872, "stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. On the whole, however, there was more wealth, and more political freedom for all classes. They demanded gender equality, wages' equality, right of divorce for women, right to laque instruction (non-clerical) and for professional formation for girls. This allowed France to field much larger armies than its enemies, and soon the tide of war was reversed. The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus affair, and this allowed the Radicals to eventually gain power from 1899 until the Great War. Ways to reverse the trend became a major political issue. Finally, in 1852 he had himself declared Emperor Napolon III of the Second Empire. Too much had changed for that. Napoleon was at the height of his power in 18101812, with most of the European countries either his allies, satellites, or annexed directly into France. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) had been estimated by some sources as high as twenty thousand; recent historians, using research into the number buried in the city cemeteries and exhumed from mass graves, now put the most likely number at between six and seven thousand. The two most notable writers of the 1870s-80s, Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan rejected the Positivist label, but most of their ideas were similar in content. After Thiers came the conservative Guizot. By that point, the War of the Second Coalition was in progress. With the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino France and Austria signed the Peace of Villafranca in 1859, as the emperor worried that a longer war might cause the other powers, particularly Prussia, to intervene. Linguistically, France was a patchwork. A number of artists came to disagree with the cold rationalism and logic of the Positivists, feeling that it ignored human emotions. The First Republic was proclaimed the following day. Beside this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront the counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. The allies could also put far more men in the field than he could. All the prisoners and exiles were amnestied in 1879 and 1880, and most returned to France, where some were elected to the National Assembly.[28]. As a result, those three countries sent a joint expedition to the city of Veracruz in January 1862, but the British and Spanish quickly withdrew after realizing the extent of Napoleon's plans. The government found its source of legitimacy within the Charter of 1830, written by reform-minded members of Chamber of Deputies upon a platform of religious equality, the empowerment of the citizenry through the reestablishment of the National Guard, electoral reform, the reformation of the peerage system, and the lessening of royal authority. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. This caused the people of Spain to rise up in a patriotic revolt, beginning the Peninsular War. which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the migrs. After eleven months of exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, Napoleon escaped and returned to France, where he was greeted with huge enthusiasm. After this violence, nobles started to flee the country as migrs, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. The French emperor never had the chance to implement this, however - by the end of the year, the Second Empire had ignominiously collapsed. By 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life.
[19], The Restoration did not try to resurrect the Ancien Rgime. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on lacit which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The French troops marched into Spain, retook Madrid from the rebels, and left almost as quickly as they came. [12], In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic.[22]. Frequent parliamentary transitions took place, but the losers were not executed or exiled. The Anglo-French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa. Bell says, "Between the two governments there was a brief battle of wills, with the British insisting on immediate and unconditional French withdrawal from Fashoda. [38], Under the leadership of expansionist Jules Ferry, the Third Republic greatly expanded the French colonial empire. The inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881. The churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings. Forty-five thousand prisoners taken after the fall of the Commune. The Commune proposed the separation of Church and state, made all Church property state property, and excluded religious instruction from schools, including Catholic schools. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. Between 1795 and 1866, metropolitan France (that is, without overseas or colonial possessions) was the second most populous country of Europe, behind Russia, and the fourth most populous country in the world (behind China, India, and Russia); between 1866 and 1911, metropolitan France was the third most populous country of Europe, behind Russia and Germany. Quantitative analysis of output data shows the French per capita growth rates were slightly smaller than Britain. Napoleon III, who had expressed some rather woolly liberal ideas prior to his coronation, began to relax censorship, laws on public meetings, and the right to strike. [33][34][35] It took control of Algeria in 1830 and began in earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, concentrating chiefly in North and West Africa, as well as South-East Asia, with other conquests in Central and East Africa, as well as the South Pacific. The Prussians briefly occupied the city and then took up positions nearby. Guesde's POF united itself in 1902 with the Parti socialiste de France, and finally in 1905 all socialist tendencies, including Jaurs' Parti socialiste franais, unified into the Section franaise de l'Internationale ouvrire (SFIO), the "French section of the Second International", itself formed in 1889 after the split between anarcho-syndicalists and Marxist socialists which led to the dissolving of the First International (founded in London in 1864). Both the Legitimist and the Orlanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. Beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. With that, the extreme, radical phase of the Revolution ended. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. However, for lack of time and resources, the programs were never carried out. During the Scramble for Africa in the 1870s and 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other's spheres of influence. The overseas empire expanded, and France made gains in Indo-China, West and central Africa, and the South Seas. It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. Tensions between groups escalated, and in June 1848, a working class insurrection in Paris cost the lives of 1500 workers and eliminated once and for all the dream of a social welfare constitution.
The city finally surrendered on January 28, 1871. By 1914, most French could read French and the use of regional languages had greatly decreased; the role of the Catholic Church in public life had been radically diminished; a sense of national identity and pride was actively taught. It was made clear that his right to rule came from the people and was not divinely granted. In the final days of the battle the Communards set fire to the Tuileries Palace, the Hotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Palace of the Legion of Honor, and other prominent government buildings, and executed hostages they had taken, including Georges Darboy, the archbishop of Paris. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. The quality of his troops deteriorated sharply and war-weariness at home increased. [6] In terms of per capita growth, France was about average. Further legislation abolished monastic vows. As the city was being bombarded by Prussian siege guns in January 1871, King William of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. Guizot shut down republican clubs and disbanded republican publications. Louis XVIII fled Paris, but the one thing that would have given the emperor mass support, a return to the revolutionary extremism of 17931794, was out of the question. By 1848, Algeria had been declared an integral part of France.[24]. Like the U.S. At sea however, the French navy proved no match for the British, and was badly beaten off the coast of Ireland in June 1794. Portugal, an ally of Britain, was the only European country that openly refused to join. Afterwards, Napoleon, unable to defeat Britain militarily, tried to bring it down through economic warfare.
German troops were to remain in the country until it was paid off. The emperor was given an archduchess to marry by the Austrians, and she gave birth to his long-awaited son in 1811. French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s, using imported British engineers. Public opinion was becoming a major force as people began to tire of oppressive authoritarianism in the 1860s. The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck provoked Napoleon into declaring war on Prussia in July 1870. Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates-General which convened in Versailles in 1789. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, as well as limiting his executive authority. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards" and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. At Japan's request Paris sent military missions in 18721880, in 18841889 and in 19181919 to help modernize the Japanese army. Napoleon's reckless foreign policy was inciting criticism. Nathalie Lemel, a religious workwoman, and Elisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian aristocrat, created the Union des femmes pour la dfense de Paris et les soins aux blesss ("Women Union for the Defense of Paris and Care to the Injured") on April 11, 1871. The French were never able to suppress the forces of the ousted Mexican president Benito Jurez, and then in the spring of 1865, the American Civil War ended. [25], The Paris Commune held power for only two months. A revolt broke out on 18 March when radicalized soldiers from the Paris National Guard killed two French generals. The subsequent peace treaty was harsh. There were large-scale purges of Bonapartists from the government and military, and a brief "White Terror" in the south of France claimed 300 victims. The period and the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the Belle poque. On 19 September the Prussian army arrived at Paris and besieged the city. Thus, the Republic was born of a double defeat: before the Prussians, and of the revolutionary Commune. Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and anti-semitism in parts of the French public opinion combined to make the Dreyfus affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. Its effect on Great Britain and on British trade is uncertain, but the embargo is thought to have been more harmful on the continental European states. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire In the 1880s. However, the King of the French still believed in a version of monarchy that held the king as much more than a figurehead for an elected Parliament, and as such, he was quite active in politics. Charles X of France followed the "ultra" conservative line but was a much less effective coalition builder than Louis XVIII. Both of those conflicts saw Prussia establish itself as the dominant power in Germany. The French population in 1789 is estimated at 28 million; by 1850, it was 36 million and in 1880 it was around 39 million. However, he was pushed on his right by the Ultra-royalists, led by the comte de Villle, who condemned the Doctrinaires' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. Some French refugees moved to France. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco.
In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe (Germany, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Ashkenazi Jews) and from the Mediterranean (Italy, Spanish Sephardic Jews and North-African Mizrahi Jews). The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power.
Bismarck had supported France becoming a republic in 1871, knowing that this would isolate the defeated nation in Europe where most countries were monarchies. On July 14, 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille fortress, killing its governor and several of his guards. The late 19th century saw France embark on a massive program of overseas imperialism including French Indochina (modern day Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) and Africa (the Scramble for Africa brought France most of North-West and Central Africa) which brought it in direct competition with British interests. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum novarum was incorrectly seen to have legitimised the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hugues Felicit Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy.
During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'tat (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. Alsace and Lorraine were lost to Germany in 1871. However, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. The Crmieux Decree of 1870 gave full citizenship for the Jews in French Algeria. Symbolist writers and philosophers included Paul Bourget, Maurice Barres, and Henri Bergson plus the painters Paul Czanne and Paul Gauguin.
18151840: irregular, but sometimes fast growth; This page was last edited on 28 June 2022, at 02:48. However, the king was recognised at Varennes in the Meuse late on June 21 and he and his family were brought back to Paris under guard. Writers such as mile Zola and artists like douard Manet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir epitomized the spirit of Positivism. Napoleon himself escaped back to France, where he led the coup d'tat of November 1799, making himself First Consul (his hapless troops remained in Egypt until they surrendered to a British expedition in 1801 and were repatriated to France). The only exception to this was a war in Algeria which had been started by Charles X a few weeks before his overthrow on the pretext of suppressing pirates in the Mediterranean. Three weeks later, the French and Spanish fleets were destroyed by the British at Trafalgar. Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on August 26, 1789, the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The army had no way to return to France and faced the hostility of the Ottoman Empire. The Women Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops. Attempts by the allies on Switzerland and the Netherlands failed however, and once Napoleon returned to France, he began turning the tide on them. He was arrested on August 10, 1792. In this situation, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. The Convention approved the new Constitution of the Year III on August 17, 1795. Between May 21 and 28 the French army reconquered the city in bitter fighting, in what became known as "la semaine sanglante" or "bloody week." They quickly did so, but Maximilian tried to hold onto power. "No Monsieur", he said to another minister, "there has not been a revolution: there is simply a change at the head of state."[23]. The first half of 1793 went badly for the new French Republic, with the French armies being driven out of Germany and the Austrian Netherlands. The anti-clericalism of the Third Republic profoundly changed French religious habits: in one case study for the city of Limoges comparing the years 1899 with 1914, it was found that baptisms decreased from 98% to 60%, and civil marriages before a town official increased from 14% to 60%. The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Afterwards, tensions between France and Prussia grew, especially in 1868 when the latter tried to place a Hohenzollern prince on the Spanish throne, which was left vacant by a revolution there. A large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. He was once quoted as saying that the source of French misery was the belief that there had been a revolution. The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes.
One hundred forty-seven Communards were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in Pre Lachaise Cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. "[30] For the imprisoned there was a general amnesty in 1880, and many of the Communards returned to France, where some were elected to the Parliament. This policy included protective tariffs that defended the status quo and enriched French businessmen. Some of them founded Action Franaise in 1898, during the Dreyfus affair, which became an influent movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. France suffered massive losses during World War I roughly estimated at 1.4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties) (or nearly 10% of the active adult male population) and four times as many wounded (see World War I Aftermath).